[Java][CI] Add testing to current java-jars builds and extend to JDK 11 and 17

As discussed on when we execute the crossbow build to the java-jars task we are not testing the built jars. Currently we are also only building the jars for JDK 1.8. We should both:
- Run Java tests over the built jars
- Build jars for other JDKs supported (11 and 17)

 

**Reporter**: [Raúl Cumplido](https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/ARROW-16640) / @raulcd

_{**Note**: *This issue was originally created as [ARROW-16640](https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/ARROW-16640). Please see the [migration documentation](https://github.com/apache/arrow/issues/14542) for further details.*}

从 crossbow java-jars 任务及其当前的 JDK 1.8 构建配置开始，然后追踪 Java 测试如何针对已构建的 jars 被调用。该任务完成的标准是：测试生成的 jars，并生成适用于 JDK 1.8、11 和 17 的构建。

由索引模型根据 Issue 内容生成。