bug: version-chooser: can't find online releases

### Bug description

When trying to access remote versions the request returns an empty list of images for any remote repository. This is part of a necessary check BlueOS does to ensure the image architecture is compatible with the hardware in use.

### Steps to reproduce

1. Go to the BlueOS Versions page
2. Try to fetch any remote repository

### Primary pain point(s)

BlueOS core updates are currently only possible through manual upload, which is less intuitive, requires much larger downloads, involves several more steps for a standard user than just clicking update or selecting a version (official or custom) to install from the remote versions list, and [may not even work in many cases](https://github.com/bluerobotics/BlueOS/issues/1600).

### Additional context

This is apparently caused by an unexpected breaking change to the Docker Hub API, per docker/hub-feedback#2484.

A resource link fallback for this kind of situation (among others) [has previously been requested](https://github.com/bluerobotics/BlueOS/issues/1502), but not implemented.

Per bluerobotics/BlueOS-Extensions-Repository#151, this has also broken the Extensions system (although we have a temporary workaround there for now, since the details are cached in the Extensions manifest).

### Prerequisites

- [x] I have checked to make sure that a similar request has not already been filed or fixed.