[Python] Misleading error reported when `pyarrow.fs.FileSystem.from_uri` has authentication error

### Describe the bug, including details regarding any error messages, version, and platform.

Affects versions <21.0.0. #44900 I believe fixed this (possibly inadvertently) for version 21.

When using constructing a `ParquetDataset`, for example with `pyarrow.parquet.read_table`, all ValueErrors are excepted on [these lines in `pyarrow.parquet.core`](https://github.com/apache/arrow/blob/apache-arrow-20.0.0/python/pyarrow/parquet/core.py#L1333-L1336)

If the filesystem exists but the user gets a permission error, for example, this is excepted. Then, a new `ArrowInvalid` error is going to be thrown from on [the next line](https://github.com/apache/arrow/blob/apache-arrow-20.0.0/python/pyarrow/parquet/core.py#L1338) because the path is interpreted as local. Typically:
```
ArrowInvalid: Expected a local file system path, got a URI
```
This is confusing as the original permission error is nowhere in the stacktrace. Could the new error be raised from the original `ValueError` in this case, or the except clause narrowed to avoid suppressing the 'true' error? Potentially partially backporting #44900 is all that is needed.

### Component(s)

Python

### Example

Version <21
```python
>>> import pyarrow.parquet as pq
>>> import pyarrow.fs
>>>
>>> pyarrow.fs.FileSystem.from_uri("abfss://a/b/c")
pyarrow.lib.ArrowInvalid: AzureOptions doesn't contain a valid account name
>>> pq.read_table("abfss://a/b/c")
pyarrow.lib.ArrowInvalid: Expected a local filesystem path, got a URI: 'abfss://a/b/c/'
```
Version >=21
```python
>>> import pyarrow.parquet as pq
>>> import pyarrow.fs
>>>
>>> pyarrow.fs.FileSystem.from_uri("abfss://a/b/c")
pyarrow.lib.ArrowInvalid: AzureOptions doesn't contain a valid account name
>>> pq.read_table("abfss://a/b/c")
pyarrow.lib.ArrowInvalid: AzureOptions doesn't contain a valid account name
```
I would be happy to contribute a fix if agreed and if these type of minor issues are generally fixed in older versions