[C++][Parquet] Make error reporting more detailed

### Describe the enhancement requested

This is really a long-standing annoyance: while Arrow C++ has rich error reporting with the various `Status` categories and `StatusDetail`, all Parquet errors boil down to a single class `ParquetException` with only an error message.

This issue proposes that we do the following things:
1. introduce a hierarchy of Parquet exception classes that would roughly mirror the `Status` categories (except the unusual/unused ones)
2. due a thorough search for `throw` in the Parquet C++ code base and convert each site to the appropriate exception
3. ensure the Status-to-exception and exception-to-Status bridges keep as much detail as possible (ideally this includes `StatusDetail` too)

### Component(s)

C++, Parquet